Family Dental Practice - Origin And amelioration Of advice And Counseling custom In Tanzanian Schools
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1.0. Overview
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1.1. Background and History of guidance and Counseling in normal in School practice and other setting
The history of school counseling formally started at the turn of the twentieth century, although a case can be made for tracing the foundations of counseling and guidance system to antique Greece and Rome with the philosophical teachings of Plato and Aristotle. There is also evidence to argue that some of the techniques and skills of modern-day guidance counselors were practiced by Catholic priests in the middle ages, as can be seen by the dedication to the plan of confidentiality within the confessional. Near the end of the sixteenth century, one of the first texts about work options appeared: The Universal Plaza of All the Professions of the World, (1626) written by Tomaso Garzoni quoted in Guez, W. & Allen, J. (2000). Nevertheless, formal guidance programs using specialized textbooks did not start until the turn of the twentieth century.
Counseling is a plan that has existed for a long time in Tanzania. We have sought straight through the ages to understand ourselves, offer counsel and invent our potential, come to be aware of opportunities and, in general, help ourselves in ways related with formal guidance practice. In most communities, there has been, and there still is, a deeply embedded conviction that, under proper conditions, habitancy can help others with their problems. Some habitancy help others find ways of dealing with, solving, or transcending problems as Nwoye, (2009) prescribed in his writings. In schools, presently if the collaboration in the middle of teachers and students is good, students learn in a practical way. Young habitancy invent degrees of leisure in their lives as they come to be aware of options and take benefit of them. At its best, helping should enable habitancy to throw off chains and carry on life situations effectively. Unprecedented economic and communal changes have, over the years, changed the ways in which we carry on our lives. Consequently, not all the lessons of the past can effectively deal with the challenges of modern times. Effective counseling, especially in institutions of studying has now come to be important. Boys and girls, and young men and women, need to be guided in the relationships in the middle of health and the environment, earning skills, knowledge, and attitudes that lead to success and failure in life. The need for counseling has come to be preeminent in order to promote the well-being of the child. Effective guidance and counseling should help to improve the self-image of young habitancy and facilitate achievement in life tasks. Counseling should empower girls and boys to partake fully in, and benefit from, the economic and communal improvement of the nation.
2.0. Definitions of Concepts
2.1. Guidance
Guidance is an act of showing the way for some people, like adolescents, who cannot find the right path. It is directing, pointing, leading and accompanying. guidance is saying "Yes" to man who is request for help. It is saying "Yes" to an invitation of man who wants a temporary companion along life's way.
Guidance is giving directions to the lonely, confused, unloved, the suffering, the sick and the lost. It is pointing to some possibilities of thinking, feeling and acting. It is leading the man psychologically, emotionally and even spiritually to some newer ways of meaningful living. It is together with those who are fearful and uncertain, those who need man along the rugged path of life's journey.
From an objective point of view, guidance is part and parcel of the counseling profession. It is called directive counseling. High school and even college students need guidance when they are unsure of what choices to make or what directions to take. The guidance consultant "opens up" a world of choices for these persons for them to select from. It is like presenting the universe when all that a man sees is the lonely planet earth. The guidance consultant enlarges and widens the horizon of habitancy who sees only a narrow path or a concealed view of that path. Thus, the focus is on possibilities and choices.
Usually, guidance occurs in schools. High school and college students avail of guidance and counseling services in their school. More often, young habitancy are unsure of what to do, how to react or respond, and how to act in confident choices. When this occurs, they need man older, wiser and more experienced to show them the way, to guide them. This is the role of the guidance consultant to enlarge aid when indispensable to those who are confused, uncertain, and needing advice. However, some adults may need guidance too.
2.2. Counseling:
Counseling is guiding and more. It is a way of healing hurts. It is both a science and an art. It is a science because to offer counsel, guidance or assistance, the consultant must have the knowledge of the basic system and techniques of counseling. The consultant must be able to use any of these basic system and techniques as paradigms in order for him to counsel well. However, it is not sufficient to use know these basic system and techniques. The other leading aspect is for the consultant to know how to counsel-the art of counseling. This aspect considers counseling as a relationship, as a sharing of life, in the hope that the man who is hurting will be healed. As a relationship, counseling involves the physical, emotional, and psychical or spiritual dimensions. The consultant must have the ability to enumerate to the counselee in an accepted physical manner without being too intimate or too close for comfort or being too distant or aloof. The emotional size in counseling includes empathy, sensitivity and the ability to account for non-verbal clues of the counselee in order to understand unresolved complexes or pent-up feelings. The psychical or spiritual size embraces the counselee's "soul-content"---what lies inside. This is what is called the interiority of the person. The consultant must have the gift or grace of catching a glance of the interior world of the person, particularly his spiritual condition, for this is very leading in healing the person's hurts.
2.3. Other Definitions of the Concepts
Biswalo (1996) defines guidance as a term used to denote the process of helping an personel to gain self comprehension and self direction (self decision-making) so that he can adjust maximally to his home, school or society environment. This process, however, depends on counseling. He also defines counseling as a process of helping an personel to accept and use facts and guidance so that he can either solve his present question or cope with it successfully. He goes further remarking that sometimes the process helps the personel to accept unchangeable situation for example, loss of dearly loved ones and to some extent convert it in its favour rather than letting himself be overcome by the situation. Guez and Allen (2000) glance that it is difficult to think of a singular definition of counseling. This is because definitions of counseling depend on theoretical orientation. Counseling is a learning-oriented process, which occurs commonly in an interactive relationship, with the aim of helping a man learn more about the self, and to use such comprehension to enable the man to come to be an Effective member of society. Counseling is a process by means of which the helper expresses care and concern towards the man with a problem, and facilitates that person's personal increase and brings about convert straight through self-knowledge. Counseling is a relationship in the middle of a involved man and a man with a need. This relationship is commonly person-to-person, although sometimes it may involve more than two people. It is designed to help habitancy to understand and account for their views, and learn how to reach their self-determined goals straight through meaningful, well-informed choices, and straight through the resolution of emotional or interpersonal problems. It can be seen from these definitions that counseling can have distinct meanings.
3.0. Origin of guidance and Counseling practice in Pre-Colonial Era
Counseling in Tanzania in distinct forms and with distinct interpretations, has existed in societies for a long time before colonial era. The differences and contradictions in present-day, have their origin in the communal and historical forces that have shaped modern culture. In Tanzania habitancy in all societies, and at all times, have experienced emotional or psychological distress and behavioural problems. In each culture, there have been well established ways and methods of helping individuals with their problems. However, there are no sufficient written sources about the origin of guidance and counseling practice in Tanzanian schools. But like other places before colonial era there were outstanding unique elements which held the societies together in their livelihood. The elements include the extended house system, together with the clan and the tribe, chieftaincy, taboos, varied forms of initiation and close links with ancestors and elders.
The hamlet is the focal point of society. While each one of these elements is important, only a few are used to account for the role of guidance and counseling in present-day Tanzanian societies. Basically, customary chiefs had many roles which included serving as a sticker of authority and as a regulator. Since these roles were accepted and respected by all, there was a clear direction in the day-to-day affairs of society. The elders, the chief included, were a indispensable source of guidance and counseling for boys and girls. In most cases, the chiefs were regarded as a vital link in the middle of ancestors and the present generation. This link was strengthened by the rituals, ceremonies and taboos attached to them. It was easy to guide and counsel the young, since the rituals or ceremonies were also aimed at making ready for adult roles in society. The extended family, the clan, and the village, made society supportive. No personel regarded him/herself as alien. Counseling was facilely sought and provided. The forms of guidance and counseling complex were given guidance and sharing wisdom.
4.0. The Developments of guidance and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools
4.1. guidance and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools Trends
In realizing this perhaps, since we are thinking of the concepts in school setting, we should think the meaning of counseling in schooling discipline. One could think that the definitions given above on the term guidance and counseling, their meaning can be directed to schooling grounds and now give the meaning correctly. Guez and Allen (2000) pointed out that a term educational counseling was first coined by Truman Kelley in 1914 in Makinde, (1988), educational counseling is a process of rendering services to pupils who need aid in development decisions about leading aspects of their education, such as the selection of courses and studies, decisions with regard to interests and ability, and choices of college and high school. Educational counseling increases a pupil's knowledge of educational opportunities.
The ever growing complexity of society in Tanzania, coupled with communal problems like Hiv/Aids and the rapid improvement of science and technology, place heavy demands on education. The school, as an leading communal institution, was required to adapt quickly to changing patterns, and help put in order citizens for tomorrow's challenges. That is where guidance and counseling in the educational system should help boys and girls alike, to invent their capacities to the full. These include intellectual, social, physical and moral capacities. This help is of the most leading in Tanzania as long as the history and age of schooling provision and in its systems found today.
Guidance and counseling practices improvement in Tanzanian schools can be traced back from the time when vocational schooling was emerging right at the colonial period. In the process of establishing counseling services in Tanzania, there was a need to first understand the fundamental factors that affect people's beliefs and perceptions about such practices. However, this is plan that was not taken in to consideration at the time and it may be up to new time. It is especially leading to understand the economic, socio-political, religious beliefs, customs and traditions, and cultural changes that are present in distinct regions of the country. Young habitancy should be understood within this context, but also within the paradoxical situation of having to face the customary and the modern world, but this is a big challenge to Tanzania and many developing African countries. While colonial duration there were some form of vocational guidance under the work guidance and it was administered by work masters. But the work masters who were excellent by the head of schools had no pro training in vocational guidance. In fact the duty was small to helping students fill out employment forms and writing letters of application. In the missionary schools vocational guidance was confined to religious services. The teachers who were commonly 'fathers', pastors, or reverends guided and trained spiritually inclined youths to come to be sisters, brothers, fathers and pastors upon their completion of formal education.
Apart of what could be done in schools in Tanzania, guidance and counseling was more or less a incommunicable house affair. Parents and relatives counseled their children on all matters of life management and question solving. It is true that in many families the duty of normal guidance was the customary duty of senior members of the family, father, mother, uncle, aunt, and grandparents. In case of serious personal or house problems, counseling was done by a specially organized by the society as a competent in handling that definite problem. This is done without any knowledge obtained from formal or informal school system but rather straight through palpate and age wise straight through collected wisdom. This kind of early form of counseling from school setting and society helped the young to be brought into the spellbinding image of living in the future to the society.
4.2. guidance and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools in Post-colonial era
In some literatures and sources, guidance and counseling in schooling sector in Tanzania and some other African countries is regarded as the youngest discipline. This is evidenced by First International discussion on Guidance, Counseling and Youth improvement in Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya from 22nd to 26th April, 2002 which pointed out that the Guidance, Counseling and Youth improvement Programme was initiated in Africa in April 1994, following the First Pan African discussion on the schooling of Girls that was held in Ouagadougou in 1993. It is designed to introduce or expand guidance and counseling in African countries. It focuses on capacity building in the countries complex and provides training at both regional and national levels on issues of guidance and counseling of schools and colleges.
What we can call pro guidance and counseling in Tanzania schools begin in the year 1984 following the National October 1984 Arusha Conference, where guidance and counseling services were endorsed by the government as and integral part of the country's schooling system (Biswalo, 1996). The aim of the discussion is to invent systematic criteria for secondary schools students' guidance and counseling. Students were then advised, guided and counseled on matters with regard to their job selection and student placement for further education. This job was assigned to work masters and mistresses as explained below, however, there were no sufficient guidance and counseling personnel not only in the responsible ministry but also in the schools.
Guidance and Counseling is now becoming gradually institutionalized and spread in educational institutions. Schools, for example, have to a large extent taken over the task of providing psychological support to boys and girls. Any way Biswalo (1996) comments that in Tanzania policies pertinent to guidance and counseling is still lacking. The Ministry of Education, however, has somehow tried to institutionalize the services within the schooling system by appointing work masters and mistresses. He prolonged saying that the personnel are charged with the responsibility of advising heads of secondary schools with regard to students job selection and student placement for further education; to try and help students understands and invent interest in accepted jobs or further schooling or training; to asses the students talents and capabilities and to encourage them to pursue careers or further schooling best great to them and to help students solve their personal problems which may affect their normal expand in school.
This is an impossible and realistic burden on these untrained personnel. It reflects the apathy of procedure and decision makers with regard to the new field of guidance and counseling in schools; the power of the myth of planned manpower in which work guidance is erroneously regarded as redundant and the gross lack of trained personnel who would contribute Effective guidance and counseling services in schools. It is unfortunate that even after the National October 1984 Arusha discussion on the strengthening of schooling in Tanzania, where guidance and counseling services were endorsed by the government as and integral part of the country's schooling system, the services are to-date still patchy and ineffective in Tanzania's educational institutions. guidance and counseling in this manner is discussed by distinct scholars in primary, secondary and tertiary schooling levels together.
5.0. guidance and Counseling Practices in customary and Secondary Schools
In customary school levels in Tanzania in actual fact there were and are no specified pupils' teacher-counselors. However, the activity is left to teachers themselves to settle what is to be done since there is no programmed or time-tabled activity with regard to guidance and counseling. Teachers are left to use part of the teaching to practice guidance and counseling in and surface the classroom although not all teachers have gone teacher-counselor training. As children enter school they need orientation on school itself, its environment, school society and the curriculum to motivate and invent confident attitude toward studying and school society as well (Biswalo, 1996). As the pupils grow older and pass straight through distinct grades they need to be directed in studying skills, overcome studying difficulties and other school related problems. But this activity is not performed systematically in customary schools in Tanzania.
In the case of secondary schools till to-date there is also insufficient programmed or time-tabled system of guiding and counseling students. In some cases this duty is left to discipline masters and sometimes to class masters and head of schools. At secondary school level, students would seek educational opportunities, facts of all kinds and any other help pertinent to educational pursuits. These needs are catered to by educational guidance and counseling (ibid). At this level students are helped with field choice, study techniques and tests and examination. Biswalo (1996) pointed out that sometimes While field choice, pride of placing as many students as possible in prestigious streams, such as science, takes precedence over actual abilities, interests and aptitudes of students. He said this unfortunate situation has been born out of the lack of genuine educational guidance and counseling services in secondary schools.
The school has an leading role to play in making ready pupils for prolonged secondary education, paid employment, self-employment and life in the community, as clearly set out by the Ministry of schooling in the objectives for its secondary curriculum. Possibly uniquely, there would be total business agreement among pupils, teachers and parents over the relative emphasis a confident schools located on the making ready for further education, with its focus on schoraly knowledge and the pursuance of success in the national examinations. That is, the secondary schools where counseling is not well performed located small emphasis on citizenship and the improvement of a responsible attitude to life in the society at the local, regional or national level and employment opportunities. However, what is de-emphasized is the informal sector together with self-employment but the emphasized is employment in the formal sector with its implied emphasis on white collar jobs.
5.1. Vocational, work guidance and Counseling
In Tanzania teachers have the capacity to directly affect their pupils' selection of careers. The achievements and attitudes of pupils have been shown to be related to the characteristics and achievements of their teachers (World Bank, 1995; quoted in Nyutu, P.N. & Norman C.G. 2008). However, the affect of the school depends on the formal interactions and transportation which take place in the middle of teachers and pupils in the classroom whereas television and radio, act straight through the informal interactions pupils have with these media. The affect of parents and siblings is straight through both formal and informal means.
That is in most cases in Tanzania and may be other states where guidance and counseling is rarely done in schools; parents play the big role to affect on their children's selection of careers. Others who have lower level careers i.e. Teachers, clerks, drivers, personal secretaries, soldiers etc. Do not anticipate their children 'following in their footsteps' because for the children who are able to study to higher level sometimes saw these jobs as narrow and lacking in interest. Any way it is recommend that parents' work might have influenced their children's selection of careers, but this happened to children who have generic skills beneficial in such jobs, and a few may have job skills relevant to those jobs. Way to facts straight through the media and other forms of technology is giving young habitancy aspirations that, for the most part, cannot be satisfied in their own environment. Choices have to be made and young habitancy must derive the skills to correlate situations and make informed decisions. There is no longer a natural, understandable order from birth to adulthood for the Tanzanian young.
Vocational guidance at secondary school levels is provided but in very few among others because of shortages of school or vocational trained counselors. For those lucky schools with these kinds of counselors, students are helped but vocational counseling is not emphasized because most pupils, teachers and of procedure parents push students to make long range plans of study so that to put in order well for the envisaged careers. These counselors plan with school administrators and teachers to contribute accepted class placement for students with extra abilities or disabilities for procedure selection by students.
5.2. Tertiary Level
The tertiary level students are provided with orientation and other educational guidance and counseling. In Tanzania tertiary level have at least fulfilled the need of having great students' counselors for both psychological and academics, though they are few in number. Here counselors play a big role in compiling unabridged facts on all aspects of the careers related to the training offered in the institution. Counselors sometimes integrate with management or practicum agency to invent field practices for students and even more rarely might contacts with relevant employing agencies (Biswalo, 1996).
6.0. plan on guidance and Counseling in Tanzania
According to the study by Sima (2004), pro counseling is yet to be recognized as a stand-alone profession in Tanzania and in many African countries. Nevertheless, the coming and setting of Hiv/Aids in the country has strengthened the base for counseling. This is particularly because of the multifaceted nature of the Hiv/Aids pandemic whose attention, unlike other human diseases, goes beyond the prerogatives of the healing profession. Thus, counseling is perceived as a crucial avenue for arresting of Hiv infection straight through provision of sufficient and relevant information, and for communal and psychological support of habitancy infected and affected by the pandemic. Ibid prolonged saying that since the emergence of the pandemic in the country, a whole of non-governmental organizations have been offering counseling services however, there is lack of clarity on the type and nature of counseling services offered by these organization. The nature and characteristics of counseling clients also remain fuzzy.
In Tanzania the pro counseling as aforesaid is relatively a new phenomenon. Outwater (1995) quoted in Sima (2004) comments that before Hiv/Aids epidemic, there was no formal counseling service in Tanzanian hospitals, no pro counselors and no formal system for training counselors. There was a need to fill this gap by training as many counselors as possible to contribute optimal care for Aids patients and their relatives (Nacp, 1989; quoted in ibid). Since then many para-professional counselors have been trained in basic knowledge and skills of counseling. Currently there are many counseling centers working not only on Hiv/Aids related problems but also distinct problems affecting Tanzanians. However, as counseling became beloved with the coming of Hiv/Aids, many habitancy assume that it is only meant for habitancy infected and affected by Hiv/Aids and shy away from it for fear of being labeled (Sima, 2002; quoted in Sima 2004).
7.0. Problems and Challenges
The Tanzanian government have not yet formulated in the schooling procedure issues pertaining guidance and counseling in spite of the crucially and necessity in schools. Biswalo (1996) pointed out that in Tanzania policies pertinent to guidance and counseling is still lacking. He prolonged saying that efforts directed towards fulfilling guidance and counseling needs are apparently thwarted by some difficulties together with financial resources to support the even established tiny counseling activities in some schools.
In Tanzania till today counseling is relatively new phenomenon. There are no sufficient great counselors in schools and other schooling institutions. However, there are small whole of great counselors, they are either not utilized well in schools or they are engaged in other activities rather than what they are trained for. Some of school counselors are also teachers and they are fully busy with teaching responsibilities. More surprisingly counseling is perceived as a crucial avenue for only arresting of Hiv infection straight through provision of sufficient and relevant information, and for communal and psychological support of habitancy infected and affected by the Hiv/Aids (Sima, 2004).
There is slow increase of guidance and counseling in educational systems attributed to lack of funds, training facilities, and high turnover of guidance counselors to green pastures and in adequately trained counselors. For instance in many schools they lack counseling offices, trained teacher-counselors and counseling equipments. In terms of funds there are varied options that can be explored to alleviate financial constraints. extra schools on behalf of parents in need can arrival non-governmental organizations.
The absence of solid pro counseling relationship in Tanzania to set standards for the accepted practice is other challenge (Nwoye, 2008). Also insufficient availability of pro consultant training programs in Tanzanian colleges and universities is other contributing challenge.
There are no efforts to invent counseling curriculum in secondary schools and colleges and guidance and counseling courses in the universities. guidance curriculum and responsive services can then be structured to address the five content areas, namely human relationships, work development, communal values, self development, and studying skills. A guidance curriculum could be taught to students at distinct levels or in small groups to address issues that are similar to them. For guidance and counseling programs to be Effective in Tanzania, trained professionals should be employed to carry on and offer services in schools. Such professionals should also be provided with relevant facilities and structural support. At the same time, universities and teacher training institutions will have to invent and invent programs that train pro school counselors and other guidance personnel.
There is still insufficient aid in higher schooling institutions to enable students achieves their work aspirations. However, students today indicate a higher need for work guidance than students in the past decade. Students may therefore be encountering an increased need to derive relevant work facts that will enable them seek better paid jobs. Many schools have in the past appointed some teachers as work masters without providing them with the indispensable training and facilities for work guidance. Such work masters commonly assume that all students will end up in universities and only focus on helping students unblemished university application forms and no more. It is the high time for the government to set and implement the procedure that will improve guidance and counseling from customary schools to the tertiary level and in turn will invent programs that train pro school counselors and other guidance personnel.
8.0. Conclusion
Guidance and counseling sought to put in order pupils in their schooling program to enter into the world of accepted work by linking the school curriculum to employment. For the school to be thriving in this endeavor, subjects should be taught at a pleasant and suitable environment and should be made relevant and spellbinding to the pupils. other factor that needs to be determined is the recruitment of competent teachers capable of guiding and counseling learners in relating what they teach to the job market. What is taught and how it is taught can have great affect on the interest and perception of learners. In Tanzania the spirit to plan and use guidance and counseling services in the Effective improvement and utilization of their respective young human resources is evidently strong. However, as Biswalo (1996) said the efforts directed towards fulfilling this need are apparently thwarted by some difficulties. It appears total and enlightened commitment on the part of procedure and decision makers is indispensable and should be right on surmount the problems.
The emergence of work improvement in western countries as a invent suggests that it may be an indispensable area in developing country like Tanzania where students need assistance; students particularly need aid in selecting colleges and courses. To this end, the schools should offer a work guidance and counseling programme under the able leadership of great school counselors.
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